The Definition of Plato's Theory of Forms

The basic questions here are: What is 'real?' Is the physical world the 'real' world? Or is there a deeper reality beyond the physical world? 

Plato offered an answer to these questions in his Theory of Forms. Now let me explain fully what this theory means.

The ancient Greek philosopher Plato did a lot to change the way we think about the world, in everything from mathematics to ethics to logic. But perhaps one of his most influential contributions to philosophy was the Theory of Forms. In basic terms, Plato's Theory of Forms asserts that the physical world is not really the 'real' world; instead, ultimate reality exists beyond our physical world. Plato discusses this theory in a few different dialogues, including the most famous one, called 'The Republic.' It is also likely that Plato inherited some of this theory from his mentor, Socrates.

Plato's philosophy asserts that there are two realms: the physical realm and the spiritual realm. The physical realm is the material thing we see and interact with on a daily basis; this physical realm is changing and imperfect, as we know all too well. The spiritual realm, however, exists beyond the physical realm. Plato calls this spiritual realm the Realm of Forms (also called the Realm of Ideas or Realm of Ideals). Plato's Theory of Forms asserts that the physical realm is only a shadow, or image, of the true reality of the Realm of Forms.

So what are these Forms, according to Plato? 

The Forms are abstract, perfect, unchanging concepts or ideals that transcend time and space; they exist in the Realm of Forms. Even though the Forms are abstract, that doesn't mean they are not real. In fact, the Forms are more 'real' than any individual physical objects. So, concepts like Redness, Roundness, Beauty, Justice, or Goodness are Forms (and thus they are commonly capitalized). Individual objects like a red book, a round ball, a beautiful girl, a just action, or a good person reside in the physical realm and are simply different examples of the Forms.

Aristotle believed morality could not be eternal and unchanging simply because moral issues have to respond to such changing situations in both time and place. Aristotle believed that the 'form' for things exists within the things themselves. This comes from experience. Another problem was the uncertainness of what the relation is between the Forms and the objects of everyday experience. Plato equates the Form with knowledge and the 'particulars' with opinion. Opinion can be wrong, but knowledge is infallible. Knowledge exists in the realm of the Forms and is independent of the objects of everyday experience. Plato does not argue that we must dismiss the objects of our senses as completely false because they act as a basis on the long journey towards knowledge. This therefore means Forms would not be completely separate from the particulars. On the whole I believe that Plato's theory is a speculation not to dismiss and there are points, which are very valid and questions our reality and existence. But there criticisms which affect the way we see things; 'what is goodness', this is a changing answer and I believe cannot be answered. Plato does not really present the Forms as a theory; what is the nature of forms? He talks about forms as distinct and separate things that are unchangeable, perfect, eternal and invisible, but what does it revel about nature? He insists that forms exist independently of the mind but they are invisible to sense.

The General Ethics of Plato

Many of the Greeks believed that harmonious functionality within society was a priority. This was certainly the case for Plato, but his inquiry goes deeper, in particular, there were three pillars that defined his ethical prose - Justice, Beauty and Truth. Plato fetched for a more common ground between the three. He felt that all three were closely connected. In Plato's mind, his definitions of Justice, Beauty and Truth provided contextual answers to “the Nature of Things”, more importantly, the “the Nature of Society”.

In Plato’s Republic we see one of the earliest attempts at a systematic theory of ethics. Plato wants to find a good definition for “justice,” a good criterion for calling something “just.”

Maybe justice is “telling the truth and paying one’s debts.” But no, Plato says, for sometimes it is just to withhold the truth or not return what was borrowed.

How about “Do good to one’s friends and harm to one’s enemies”? But that doesn’t work, says Plato, because any definition of justice in terms of “doing good” doesn’t tell us much. It only repeats the question, “What is just?”

Plato then suggests that “justice” is twofold which are: 

• Justice for the state, and
•  Justice for the soul.

Justice for the state is achieved when all basic needs are met. He is quoted as saying that "if everybody should mind his business without intruding into others' business, then there will be just state.

Three classes of people are needed: artisans and workers to produce goods, soldiers to defend the state, and rulers to organize everything. But you cannot have a just state without just men, especially just rulers. And so we must also achieve justice of the soul.

He believed the soul had three parts: reason, appetite, and honor. The desires of these three parts conflicted with each other. For example, we might have a thirst (appetite) for water, but resist accepting it from an enemy for fear of poison (reason). Justice of the soul requires that each part does its proper function, and that their balance is correct.

Justice of the soul merges with justice of the state in that men fall into one of the three classes depending on how the three parts of their soul are balanced. One’s class depends on early training, but mostly, persons are born brick-layers, soldiers, and kings – depending on the balance between the three parts of their soul.


 Plato’s ideal of philosopher kings. To bring about the ideal state, Plato says, “philosophers [must] become kings… or those now called kings [must]… genuinely and adequately philosophize.” Among other things, the philosopher king is one who can see The Good, that transcendent entity to which we compare something when we call it “good.” The idea of the philosopher-king still appeals to philosophers today, though it has rarely been achieved.

It is against this ideal state, ruled by philosopher kings, that Plato can compare other forms of state. The state under martial law (Sparta) is the least disastrous. Oligarchy (Corinth) and democracy (Athens) are worse, and tyranny (Syracuse) is the worst. These problem states come from a lack of justice in the soul. For example, a state of martial law comes from the restriction of appetite by the wrong soul-part: honor instead of reason.

Plato’s ethical theory is this: proper balance in the tripartate soul and proper balance in the tripartate state, ruled by philosopher kings, brings justice and happiness.

It is clear that nobody believes this anymore, but Plato’s was an interesting first attempt at a systematic ethics.

Socrates And His Philosophical Works

SOCRATES' LIFE AND DEATH

Socrates was born in Athens in 470 B.C. His father's name was Sophronicus, a sculptor and mason, and his mother Phaenarate was a midwife. He served as a hoplite ( a heavy armed soldier) in many Athenian campaigns and wars. He was a robust man with great powers of physical endurance. His family apparently had the moderate wealth required to launch Socrates’ career as a hoplite (foot soldier). As an infantryman, Socrates showed great physical endurance and courage, rescuing Alcibiades during the siege of Potidaea in 432 B.C. Through the 420s, Socrates was deployed for several battles in the Peloponnesian War, but also spent enough time in Athens to become known and beloved by the city’s youth. In 423 he was introduced to the broader public as a caricature in Aristophanes’ play “Clouds,” which depicted him as an unkempt buffoon whose philosophy amounted to teaching rhetorical tricks for getting out of debt. Plato pictures him as "a man with a deep sense of mission and absolute moral purity.

Socrates is viewed by many as the founding father of Western philosophy. He is equally seen as the most exemplary and the strangest of the Greek philosophers. He grew up during the golden age of Pericles’ Athens, served with distinction as a soldier, but became best known as a questioner of everything and everyone. Many Athenians mistook him for a Sophist because of his relentless analysis of any and every subject- a technique eqaully employed by the Sophists. Although he never outrightly rejected the standard Athenian view of religion, Socrates' beliefs were more of nonconformist. He often referred to God rather than the gods, and reported being guided by an inner divine voice.

His style of teaching- The Socratic Method—involved not only conveying knowledge but rather asking question after clarifying question until his students arrived at their own understanding. 

Notably, in military campaigns, Socrates could go without food longer than anyone else. He was capable of intense concentration. It was reported that on one occasion he stood in deep contemplation for a day and night. He frequently received messages from a mysterious voice. He had the capacity of self denial and he commanded respect by his simplicity.

Socrates wrote nothing himself, so all that is known about him is gotten from the writings of a few of his contemporaries and followers, most of all, his student Plato.

In 399 B.C, he was accused of corrupting the youth of Athens and sentenced to death. Choosing not to flee, he spent his final days in the company of his friends before drinking the executioner’s cup of poisonous hemlock.

As a youth, he showed an appetite for learning. Plato describes him eagerly acquiring the writings of the leading contemporary philosopher Anaxagoras and says he was taught rhetoric by Aspasia, the talented mistress of the great Athenian leader Pericles.

THE LIFE AND WORKS OF PLATO (427-347 B.C)

Plato was the most famous student of Socrates, and the teacher of Aristotle. He was born in Collytus in Attica in 427 B.C. He was the son of an aristocratic father, Ariston, and his mother was Perictione. His father was descended from the ancient Athenian king Kodros (Codrus), and his mother was a descendant of Solon, the Athenian lawgiver.

He had two brothers, Glaucon and Adeimantus. He started off with the name Aristoklis, but was re-named Plato in his teens because he had a wide sternum and forehead. His philosophical dialogues have survived the ages, and they not only exercised enormous influence over ancient Greek philosophy, but more generally, they influenced the entire Western philosophical tradition.

Plato, among others, wrote The Apology of Socrates and The Symposium, where he talks about the nature of love, while The Republic described the ideal State. Thirty-six works are attributed to Plato and all, apart from Apology (of Socrates), are interactive. Plato was also the founder of the Academia (Academy).

As a child of Athenian noble parents, Plato was educated by the best teachers of the era in philosophy, music, and gymnastics. Initially, he studied poetry and was a poet, but he was also an athlete.

Reading and writing were taught by Dionysius, gymnastics was taught by Ariston the Argeios, and music was taught by Akragantinos Metellos. He was also influenced by Kratylos (Cratylus), a follower of Heraclitus, who dealt with tragic reason. For Plato, his spiritual and moral compass was established from his encounter with the “Man of Athens,” Socrates, at the age of 20.

It should still be noted that his early personal ambition was probably political, though his relationship with Socratic teachings and their ethos permanently altered his moral and spiritual orientation. This made him destroy his early poetic works and he switched to philosophy.

Moreover, he quickly felt aversion for the violence that had been taking place in the city. After the fall of the oligarchy, he hoped to improve the situation with the restoration of democracy. Eventually, however, Plato found that there was no place for a conscientious person in Athenian politics.

After Socrates was sentenced to death, a legal consequence of asking politico-philosophic questions of his students, Plato, along with other followers of Socrates, escaped to Megara. Plato was close to 30 years old at this time. He stayed for some time at Megara and from there went to Cyrene, where he studied geometry, and then traveled to Egypt. He traveled down to Italy and from there went to Sicily, where he became friends with the Greek politician who ruled Sicily, Dion.

He had been invited by Dionysius the Elder to try bring back democracy to politics. However, Plato was sold by the tyrant Dionysius as a slave to someone, because Plato attempted to convince him about the principles of Justice that should govern the exercise of power. He was later freed with a horde of silver coins.

In 387 B.C., Plato was again in his home country where he founded the Academy, which took its name from the place where the Temple of the hero Akadimos stood. In 347 B.C., it is believed that Plato died peacefully in his sleep, and he was buried at the Academy where he taught.

Plato And His Philosophical View Of Man

Definitions Of African Philosophy

What Is African Philosophy?

                              

African Philosophy is a disputed term, partly because it is not clear if it refers to philosophies with a specifically African theme or context (such as distinctively African perceptions of time, personhood, etc.), or just any philosophizing carried out by Africans (or even people of African descent).

One of the earliest works of political philosophy was the Maxims of the Egyptian official and philosopher Ptah-Hotep as early as the 24th Century B.C. The Egyptian Hellenistic philosopher Plotinus of the 3rd Century B.C. is credited with founding the Neoplatonist school of philosophy.

Major Trends in African Philosophy

1. Ethnophilosophy treats African philosophy as consisting in a set of shared beliefs, values, categories and assumptions that are implicit in the language, practices and beliefs of African cultures (or the uniquely African world view). Ths argues that the fundamental assumptions about reality are reflected in the languages of Africa. For example, E. J. Alagoa argues for the existence of an African philosophy of history stemming from traditional proverbs from the Niger Delta.

Some African philosophers (such as the Senegalese Léopold Senghor) have argued for the concept of negritude, including the idea that the distinctly African approach to reality is based on emotion and artistry rather than logic, although the idea is highly contentious.

2. Philosophical sagacity is a sort of individualist version of ethnophilosophy, in which one records the beliefs of certain special members of a community (sages) who have a particularly high level of knowledge and under­standing of their cultures' world-view. However, it becomes difficult to distinguish between a bona fide philosophy and a mere local belief, or just a history of ideas.

3. The professional philosophy trend argues that the whole concept of a particular way of thinking, reflecting, and reasoning is relatively new to most of Africa, and that African philosophy is really just starting to grow. An example of this growth is the Kawaida project, created by Maulana Karenga, an ongoing search for African models of excellence in the seven core areas of culture: history; spirituality and ethics; social organization; political organization; economic organization; creative production (art, music, literature, dance, etc.) and ethos.

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Reference:

http://philosophybasics.com

The Socratic Problem

Introduction

Socrates has the main character in most of Plato’s dialogues and has a genuine historical figure. It is widely understood that in later dialogues, Plato used the character Socrates to give voice to views that were his own. Besides, Plato three other important sources exist for the study of Socrates; Aristophanes, Aristotle and Xenophon. Since no extensive writings of Socrates himself survived to the modern era, his actual views must be discerned from the sometimes contradictory reports of these four sources. The main source for the historical Socrates is the Socratic dialogues, which are reports of conversations apparently involving Socrates. Most information is found in the works of Plato and Xenophon.

The Socratic Problem 

The Socratic problem is a term used in historical scholarship concerning attempts at reconstructing a historical and philosophical image of Socrates based on the variable, and sometimes contradictory nature of the existing sources on his life. Thus, the problem of Socrates is the problem of ascertaining exactly what his philosophical teaching was. In this ragard, scholars rely on the external sources such as those of his contemporaries like Aristophanes or the disciples of Socrates like Plato and Xenophon for knowing anything about Socrates.

These sources contain contradictory details of his life, works and beliefs, when taken together. This complicates the attempts at reconstructing the beliefs and philosophical view held by Socrates. It is apparent to scholarship that this problem is now deemed a task seeming impossible to clarify, and thus, perhaps now classified as unsolvable. For instace, considering Xenophon’s writing on Socrates, he viewed him as “a man whose chief interest is to make good men and citizens, one who did not concern himself with problems of logic and metaphysics- a popular ethics teacher”.

On the other hand, taking Platonic dialogues as a whole, one would receive the impression of a metaphysician of the highest order, a man who did not concern himself with questions of daily conduct but laid the foundation of a ‘Transcendental Philosophy’ by his doctrine of a metaphysical world of forms. Thus, Aristotle gives us the understanding that while Socrates was not uninterested in theory, he did not himself teach the doctrine of subsistent forms, which is characteristic of Platonism.

However, considering the thoughts that regard Xenophon’s portrayal as being too ‘ordinary’ and ‘trivial’ because of his lack of philosophical ability and interest renders his position weak. We cannot reject the testimony of Aristotle and are forced to conclude that Plato, except in the early Socratic works, example- the Apology, puts his own doctrines in the mouth of Socrates. This view has the greater advantage that the Xenophonic and Platonic Socrates are not placed in glaring opposition and inconsistency, while the dear testimony of Aristotle is not thrown overboard. In this way, a more or less consistent picture of Socrates is evolved, and no unjustifiable violence is done to any of these sources.

Conclusion

Some of the above sources of Socrates has been challenged by many scholars to misrepresent him, especially that of Xenophon who saw Socrates as an ordinary man with no knowledge of philosophy. These sources, however, continue to pose many questions to philosophers.